Category Archives: motorcycle helmet expert

Motorcycle helmet expert Dr. John Lloyd has served attorneys nationwide for 25+ years in biomechanics, human factors, helmet testing and motorcycle accident expert

Motorcycle Helmet Injury Biomechanics

Biomechanical Evaluation of Motorcycle Helmets: Protection Against Head & Brain Injuries

John D. Lloyd, PhD, CPE
Tel: 813-624-8986 | Email: DrJohnLloyd@Tampabay.RR.com

* peer-reviewed and published in the Journal of Forensic Biomechanics, October 2017
** DOWNLOAD PDF FILE

Abstract

Motorcycle accident victims worldwide account for more than 340,000 fatalities annually, with the Unites States ranking 8th highest in number of motorcycle accident deaths, largely due to non-mandatory motorcycle helmet requirements for adults in a number of States. Seventy-five percent of all fatal motorcycle accidents involve head and brain injury, with rotational forces acting on the brain the primary cause of mortality. Current motorcycle helmets are reasonably effective at reducing head injuries associated with blunt impact. However, the mechanism of traumatic brain injury is biomechanically very different from that associated with focal head injury. This study was conducted to evaluate the effectiveness of current motorcycle helmets at reducing the risk of traumatic brain injuries.

Ten motorcycle helmet designs, including full-face, three-quarter and half-helmets were evaluated at an average impact velocity of 8.3 ms-1 (18.5 mph) using a validated test apparatus outfitted with a crash test dummy head and neck. Sensors at the center of mass of the headform enabled high-speed data acquisition of linear and angular head kinematics associated with impact.

Results indicate that none of the standard helmet models tested provide adequate protection against concussion and severe traumatic brain injuries at moderate impact speeds. Only one of the standard motorcycle helmet models tested provided adequate protection against skull fracture.

A new motorcycle helmet prototype, incorporating a liner constructed from a composite matrix of rate-dependent materials was tested, with comparison to standard motorcycle helmet designs, with very promising results. Knowledge learned from this study will facilitate the development of a new generation of advanced motorcycle helmets that offer improved protection against both head and brain injuries.

Keywords: biomechanics; motorcycle accident; motorcycle helmet; skull fracture; concussion; subdural hematoma; brain injury; TBI

Introduction

In developing countries motorcycles are required for utilitarian purposes due to lower prices and greater fuel economy, whereas in the developed world they are considered a luxury and used mostly for recreation. In 2016 there were more than 134 million motorcycles worldwide [1], 8.4 million of which were registered in the United States, representing 3.2% of all US registered vehicles. California, Florida and Texas were the leading states in terms of the motorcycle popularity; collectively representing 22% of all US registered motorcycles [2]. In 2011, U.S. motorcyclists travelled a total of 18.5 billion miles, which, while only 0.6% of total vehicle miles travelled, accounted for 14.6% (4,612) of U.S. traffic fatalities that year. Worldwide there are more than 340,000 motorcyclist fatalities annually, which equates to more than 28% of all road accident deaths [3]. According to the U.S. National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA) and other reports, when compared per vehicle mile traveled with automobiles, due to their vulnerability, motorcyclists’ risk of a fatal crash is 30-35 times greater than that of a car occupant [4][5][6][7].

Two fundamental epidemiologic studies into the causation of motorcycle accidents have been conducted: the Hurt study in North America and the MAIDS study in Europe. According to the Hurt Report [8], 75 percent of collisions were found to involve a motorcycle and a passenger vehicle, while the remaining 25% were single vehicle accidents. The cause of motorcycle versus passenger vehicle collisions in 66% of accidents involves violation of the rider’s right of way due to the failure of motorists to detect and recognize motorcycles in traffic. Findings further indicate that severity of injury to the rider increases with alcohol consumption, motorcycle size and speed.

The most recent epidemiologic study to investigate motorcycle accident exposure data was conducted between 1999-2001 by a partnership of five European countries [9]. Findings show that passenger cars were again the most frequent collision partner (60%), where more than two-thirds of drivers reported that they did not see the motorcycle and more than half of all accidents involving motorcycles occurred at an intersection.

The COST report, which is an extension of the MAIDS study, documents that three-quarters (75%) of all motorcyclist deaths are a result of injury to the head and brain [10]. Linear forces were the major factor in 31% of fatal head injuries, while rotational forces were found to be the primary cause in over 60% of cases. While the helmet is considered the most effective means of rider protection [11], recent studies indicate that motorcycle helmets are only 37-42% successful in preventing fatal injury [12],[13]. By reducing peak linear forces acting on the head it was commonly believed that the risk of diffuse brain injuries, including concussion, subdural hematoma and diffuse axonal injury would also be prevented [8]. However, the biomechanical mechanisms of head and brain injuries are unique. New research shows that these mechanisms are poorly correlated [14].

Motorcycle Helmet Standards

Like most helmets, motorcycle helmets are modeled after ancient military helmets, the purpose of which is to provide protection against penetrating head injury, such as skull fracture. Whereas, all impacts have both linear and oblique components, which produce translational and tangential forces, respectively. The modern motorcycle helmet was introduced over 60 years ago [15]. Its outer shell serves as a second skull, diffusing impact forces over a larger surface area, while the inner liner compresses to minimize translational forces. However, a mechanism to mitigate tangential forces is absent. Since the liner fills the entire inner surface of the shell and is immobile, rotational inertia induced tangential forces are transmitted directly to the brain.

The likelihood of a helmeted motorcyclist sustaining impact loading injuries, such as skull fractures, can be determined by quantifying the magnitude of peak linear acceleration experienced by a test headform in response to impact. Whereas the risk of a rider suffering inertial or impulse loading injuries, such as concussion, axonal injury and intracranial hematoma can be computed based on impact-related angular kinematics at the headform center of mass [16],[17].

Unfortunately motorcycle helmet protection is not driven, for the most part, by advances in scientific knowledge, but by the need to meet applicable testing standards [18],[19]. In the United States, the governing specification is the federal motor vehicle safety standard (FMVSS) #218 [20]; the Snell Memorial Foundation also offers a voluntary standard M2015, which is a little more stringent [21]. Whereas BSI 6658 [22] and ECE 22.05 [23] have been adopted in European countries and AS/NZS 1698 accepted in Australasian countries [24]. Test protocols involve the guided fall of a helmeted headform onto steel anvils of various designs at impact velocities ranging from only 5.2 to 7.5 m/s (11-17 mph). The pass/fail criterion is based only on the helmet’s effectiveness in reducing peak linear acceleration, and thereby translational forces, in response to impact.

Impact-related angular head kinematics are not quantified under current motorcycle helmet standards, which therefore fail to assess whether helmets offer any protection against traumatic brain injuries. The omission of this critical measure of helmet performance is reflected epidemiologically in the disproportion of closed head and brain injuries in fatal motorcycle accidents [9,10].

Biomechanics of Head and Brain Injury

The two mechanisms associated with traumatic head and brain injury are impact loading and impulse loading, both of which are present in all impact events. Impact loading involves a blow directed through the center of mass of the head, resulting in translation of the head and brain. When thresholds of injury are exceeded, skull fractures [25], lacerations and contusions (bruising) to the head and underlying brain tissue may result [26]. Whereas, impulse or inertial loading is produced when an oblique impact, common to motorcycle crashes, creates tangential forces, causing head rotation. Since the brain is not rigidly attached to the inside of the skull, rotational inertia of the brain produces a mechanical strain on cerebral blood vessels, nerve fibers and brain tissue. When thresholds of injury are exceeded, nerve fibers in the brain may be damaged, producing concussion [27] and diffuse axonal injury (DAI) [28]. Blood vessels may also rupture, causing subdural hemorrhages (SDH) [29], the high mortality rate of which has motivated numerous studies of bridging vein failure properties [30],[31],[32],[33],[34],[35]. Subdural hematoma and traumatic axonal injury are frequently identified as the cause of serious injury or fatality in motorcycle accidents.

Holbourn [[36]] was the first to identify angular / rotational acceleration as the principal mechanism in brain injury. Gennarelli, Ommaya and Thibault further investigated the importance of rotational (angular) acceleration in brain injury causation, based on studies involving live primates and physical models, [28,29,[37],[38],[39], concluding that angular acceleration is far more critical than linear acceleration to the causality of traumatic brain injuries. They further isolated and investigated the unique effects of translational (linear) and inertial (angular) loading on the heads of primates [28], confirming that pure translation produces focal injuries, such as contusions and skull fractures, while rotationally induced inertial loading causes diffuse effects, including concussion and subdural hematoma. Closed head and brain injury, found in more than 60% of motorcycle accident fatalities, is due to inadequate helmet protection against impact-related angular head kinematics [10].

Skull fracture:

Ono [25] published thresholds for human skull fracture based on cadaver experiments. Twenty-five human cadaver skulls were exposed to frontal, occipital and lateral impacts. Each skull was covered with the rubber skin of a Hybrid II mannequin and filled with gelatin to accurately represent head mass. A series of 42 frontal, 36 occipital and 58 temporal blows were delivered to the suspended heads, during which linear accelerations were measured. A skull fracture threshold of 250 g for 3-millisecond impulse duration was established for frontal and occipital impacts, decreasing to 140 g for 7-millisecond impulse duration. Whereas the skull fracture threshold for lateral impacts is reported as 120 g over 3-millisecond duration, decreasing to 90 g over 7 milliseconds. Results indicate that skull fracture threshold is inversely related to impulse duration.

Concussion:

Several studies have attempted to establish biomechanical thresholds for concussion. Pellman et al. analyzed a series of video-recorded concussive impacts during NFL football games, reporting that concussive injury is possible at 45 g / 3500 rad/s2, while 5500 rad/s2 represents a 50% risk of concussive trauma [40]. Rowson and Duma, also using head injuries in America football as their model, conducted extensive laboratory and field-based biomechanical evaluations [41],[42],[43],[44]. Based on data from 62,974 sub-concussive impacts and 37 diagnosed concussions recorded using the Simbex, Inc. (Lebanon, NH) Head Impact Telemetry System (HITS), the investigators propose a concussion threshold of 104 ± 30 g and 4726 ± 1931 rad/s2.

Subdural Hematoma:

According to Gennarelli, the most common form of acute subdural hematoma (ASDH) is caused by shearing of veins that bridge the subdural space [29]. The severity of injury associated with bridging vein rupture has led to numerous studies of their mechanical properties (Lowenhielm [30-31,32], Lee and Haut [33], Meaney [34], and Depreitere [35]).

Lowenhielm tested 22 human parasagittal bridging vein samples from 11 decedents between the ages of 13 and 87 years without history of brain injury [30,31]. He hypothesized that blunt trauma to the head causes the brain to be displaced with respect to the dura, thereby stretching bridging veins and surrounding connective tissue. Based on his laboratory experiments, Lowenhielm found that maximal shear stresses occur about 7 milliseconds after impact, coinciding with bridging vein disruption. He concluded that bridging vein rupture may occur if peak angular acceleration exceeds 4500 rad/s2.

Depreitere subjected ten unembalmed human cadavers to 18 occipital impacts producing head rotation of varying magnitude and impulse duration in the sagittal plane [35]. Bridging vein ruptures, detected by autopsy, were produced in six impact tests. Findings suggest a mean tolerance level of approximately 6,000 rad/s2 for 10-millisecond impulse duration, which seems to decrease for longer impulse durations, however the confidence interval is rather broad due to the limited data set. Data from the research by Depreitere and Lowenhielm is presented in Figure 1.

Figure 1: Bridging vein failure as a function of impulse duration and peak angular acceleration (with line of best fit and 75% confidence intervals).

Lloyd - Motorcycle Helmet Biomechanics - Figure 1 Helmets decrease peak translational force by extending the impulse duration. In the case of motorcycle helmets, typical impulse duration is approximately 12 milliseconds. With reference to Figure 1, above, this suggests that bridging vein rupture may result with peak angular accelerations in the order of 5,000 rad/s2, but may be as low as 3,000 rad/s2 after adjusting for standard error of the mean in this limited dataset.

While previous studies have investigated motorcycle impacts into vehicles and fixed barriers, the underlying motivation of such studies was to determine crush characteristics of the vehicles for accident reconstruction purposes [45]. Other studies have evaluated peak linear accelerations of the head, chest and pelvis of motorcyclists in collisions [46]. However, rotational forces associated with impact-related peak angular accelerations have not been determined even though it is well known that rotational mechanisms are the primary cause of closed head injuries [28,29,36-37,38,39] in helmeted motorcyclist accidents [10]. Measurement of impact-related head angular / rotational acceleration is critical to the development and evaluation of motorcycle helmets to provide effective protection against traumatic brain injuries associated with a range of typical motorcycle crash-related head impact speeds. To that end, this paper offers an objective determination of the performance of a variety of motorcycle helmets in terms of their ability to protect against both head and traumatic brain injuries associated with impact velocities reflective of typical head impact velocities in motorcycle accidents.

Methods

The standard test apparatus for impact testing of protective headwear was modified to enable measurement of both linear and angular headform kinematics [16]. This validated apparatus is comprised of parallel vertical braided stainless steel wires that guide the fall of a 50th percentile Hybrid III head and neck assembly (HumaneticsATD, Plymouth, MI) mounted to an aluminum flyarm. The anvil onto which the headform impacts consists of a 50 mm thick steel base plate, with a 100 mm thick concrete overlay, consistent with the coefficient of friction for typical roadway surfaces. Figure 2 illustrates this setup.

Figure 2: Modified Head drop system with Hybrid III head / neck

Lloyd - Motorcycle Helmet Biomechanics - Figure 2

According to Mellor et al. [47] apparatus for the evaluation of protective headgear in which the headform is rigidly affixed to the carriage (flyarm) reduces the dissipation of energy by excessive rotation of the helmeted headform and sliding of the helmet on the anvil, thereby inflating peak linear acceleration measures. Examples in which the headform is rigidly affixed to the flyarm include the FMVSS218 test apparatus [20]. Whereas in Snell M2015 [21], BS 6658 [22] and AS/NZS 1698 [24] specifications the headform is attached to the flyarm by means of a hinge joint, which allows headform rotation in the sagittal plane as well as vertical translation, but prevents motion in the coronal and axial planes. The ECE 22:05 test method [23] utilizes a ball joint between the flyarm and headform, thereby permitting unrestricted head rotation in all three planes. Similar to the ECE test method, utilization of the Hybrid III neck permits headform rotation in sagittal, coronal and axial planes, but limits the rate of motion in a manner more consistent with the human musculoskeletal system [48]. Moreover, orientation of the Hybrid III neck was maintained relative to the flyarm, irrespective of headform orientation, thereby standardizing response of the neck form.

Instrumentation: A triaxial block, installed at the center of mass of the Hybrid III headform (HumaneticsATD, Plymouth, MI) housed a triaxial accelerometer from PCB Piezotronics (Depew, NY) and three DTS-ARS Pro angular rate sensors (Diversified Technical Systems, Seal Beach, CA). Data from the sensors were acquired using compact DAQ hardware from National Instruments (Austin, TX).

While all sensors had been calibrated by the respective manufacturers, verification tests were performed to validate linear and angular sensor calibration data. Calibration of the tri-axial linear accelerometer was validated using a portable handheld shaker and found to be within specification for all three axes of measurement. For the angular rate sensor a simple validation method was devised in which the sensor was affixed to a digital goniometer, which was moved through a set angle (Figure 3). Using LabView, the integral of angular rate was computed, reflecting concurrence with the digital goniometer for all three planes of motion.

Figure 3: Validation of Angular Rate Sensor Calibration

Lloyd - Motorcycle Helmet Biomechanics - Figure 3

Ten motorcycle helmet models were selected for evaluation, based on popularity among motorcyclists, including representative models of full-coverage, three-quarter and half-helmet (shorty) styles, as shown in Figure 4, below. All models displayed the DOT certification sticker, indicating that their protective performance met the FMVSS218 motorcycle helmet testing standard [20]. Helmet sizes were chosen based on best fit for the Hybrid III headform, which has a 58cm head circumference, representative of a 50th percentile US adult male.

Figure 4: Motorcycle Helmet Models Evaluated

Lloyd - Motorcycle Helmet Biomechanics - Figure 4

In addition, a new prototype motorcycle helmet (Figure 5) was tested for comparison against the ten standard DOT motorcycle helmets. The prototype helmet was a three-quarter standard shell with liner constructed from a composite of rate-dependent materials arranged in a patent-pending matrix [49].

Figure 5: Motorcycle Helmet Prototype

Lloyd - Motorcycle Helmet Biomechanics - Figure 5Five samples of each motorcycle helmet model were purchased in new condition. Each helmet was impacted one time in the frontal and/or occipital region at an impact velocity of approximately 8.3 meters per second (18.5 mph), which was verified computationally. Repeatability of the tests was confirmed at the start and end of data collection by dropping the Hybrid III headform from a height of 2.0 m onto a Modular Elastomer Programmer (MEP) pad of 25 mm thickness and durometer 60A. Standard Error of the Mean of 0.061 was computed based on peak angular accelerations for pre and post MEP pad drop tests.

Analysis: Analog sensor data were acquired at 20 kHz per channel, in accordance with SAE J211 [50], using LabView (National Instruments, Austin, TX). The raw data was then filtered in MATLAB (The MathWorks, Natick, MA) using a phaseless eighth-order Butterworth filter with cutoff frequencies of 1650 Hz and 300Hz for the linear accelerometers and angular rate sensors, respectively. Angular acceleration measures were computed from the angular velocity data using 5-point least-squares quartic equations. Impulse duration was determined based on the linear acceleration signal, where impulse start point is the time at which the magnitude of linear acceleration exceeds 3 g and impulse end point is the time at which the major component of linear acceleration crosses the y-axis (Figure 6). The gradient from impulse start point to peak was computed, as was the area under the acceleration magnitude curve from start to end points. Variables for the angular acceleration signal were similarly computed.

Figure 6: Impulse duration based on linear acceleration data

Lloyd - Motorcycle Helmet Biomechanics - Figure 6An analysis method validated by Takhounts [51] establishes physical (strain and stress based) injury criteria for various types of brain injury based on scaled animal injury data and uses Anthropomorphic Test Device (ATD) test data to establish a kinematically based brain injury criterion (BrIC) for use with ATD impact testing. This method was utilized to express risk of brain injury according to the recently revised AIS scale [52] in terms of peak angular head kinematics, where:

The probability of brain injury for AIS 1-5 was thus computed as a function of BrIC:

Lloyd - Motorcycle Helmet Biomechanics - BrIC Equation

Additionally, mechanical head and brain injury parameters of maximum pressure (in kPa), maximum principal strain (MPS) and cumulative strain damage measure (CDSM) were computed for each helmet impact test:

Lloyd - Motorcycle Helmet Biomechanics - Equations

Results

The following table presents a summary of results for each of helmet models evaluated:

Table 1: Summary of Results

Lloyd-Motorcycle Helmet Biomechanics -Table 1

* The best performing helmet for each variable is highlighted in green
* The worst performing helmet for each variable is highlighted in red

Motorcycle Helmet Protection against Skull Fracture:

Figure 7, below, presents peak linear acceleration values, averaged across 5 samples of each of the 10 motorcycle helmet models tested, along with results for the prototype, against pass/fail thresholds for current motorcycle helmet testing standards (DOT, Snell, BS and ECE) as well as frontal-occipital and lateral skull fracture thresholds, per Ono [25].

Figure 7: Risk of Skull Fracture Associated with Motorcycle Helmet Impacts

Lloyd - Motorcycle Helmet Biomechanics - Figure 7

Results show that while all of the motorcycle helmet models evaluated satisfy at least the DOT standard, only the Scorpion T510 full-face helmet offers sufficient protection against fronto-occipital and lateral impacts at the moderate impact velocities at which the helmets were tested.

Motorcycle Helmet Protection against Concussion:

Figure 8 presents peak angular acceleration results for 8.3 m/s impacts onto a concrete anvil, averaged across 5 samples of each helmet model. The red horizontal line on figure 8 indicates the 50% threshold for concussive trauma, as defined by Pellman et al [40].

Figure 8: Risk of Concussion Associated with Motorcycle Helmet Impacts

Lloyd - Motorcycle Helmet Biomechanics - Figure 8

Results show that while a DOT approved motorcycle helmet may reduce peak angular acceleration associated with a helmeted head impact, the level of protection is not sufficient to prevent concussive injury in a typical motorcycle accident. Only the prototype motorcycle helmet, incorporating a liner constructed from a composite of rate-dependent materials arranged in a patent-pending matrix [49], offered adequate protection against concussive events.

Motorcycle Helmet Protection against Subdural Hematoma:

Figure 9, below, presents peak angular acceleration as a function of impulse duration, averaged across 5 samples of each of the 10 motorcycle helmet models tested, along with results for the prototype helmet. The threshold for bridging vein failure and resultant subdural hematoma is represented by the black line of best fit. Upper and lower boundary limits of this threshold are indicated in red, which represents a 75% likelihood that a subdural hematoma may occur for peak angular accelerations above the lower red line.

Figure 9: Risk of Subdural Hematoma Associated with Motorcycle Helmet Impacts

Lloyd - Motorcycle Helmet Biomechanics - Figure 9

Most of the helmets tested, with exception of the prototype, fall above the lower threshold line suggesting the likelihood of catastrophic brain injury associated with a moderate helmeted impact. In fact, all but one of the five half-helmet models tested produced results above the mean threshold for subdural hematoma, indicating a higher likelihood of severe (AIS 4) or critical (AIS 5) brain injury. Overall, it appears that full-face helmets generally outperform half helmets in reducing the risk of subdural hematoma. Interestingly, an unhelmeted individual can seemingly withstand substantially greater peak angular accelerations and consequently experiences a lower risk of catastrophic brain trauma than a helmeted individual.

Correlation Analyses:

Pearson’s correlations were computed between each of the variables. Trends were suggested if computed R2 values were greater than 0.70, while strong correlations are indicated if R2 exceeded 0.80. Across all measures, the three most important variables, in rank order, for determining risk of head and brain injury are peak angular acceleration, angular acceleration gradient, and area under the angular acceleration curve between impulse start to end. The following interesting results were observed:

  • A negative trend exists between helmet mass and both linear acceleration (-0.70) and angular acceleration (-0.72). That is, both peak linear acceleration and peak angular acceleration seem to decrease as helmet mass increases.
  • There is neither a trend nor strong correlation between linear velocity and any of the variables investigated. This finding suggests that risk of head and brain injury is not related to impact speed.
  • A strong negative correlation exists between peak linear acceleration and impulse duration (-0.92). That is, impulse duration increases as peak linear acceleration decreases.
  • A trend, but not strong correlation was found between peak linear acceleration and peak angular acceleration, indicating that reducing impact-related peak linear acceleration may not necessarily mitigate peak angular acceleration.
  • Peak angular acceleration is strongly correlated with rotational injury criterion (RIC36) (0.95), Brain rotational Injury Criterion (BrIC) (0.93), probability of brain injury AIS 2 through 5 (μ=0.91), angular acceleration gradient (0.98), and area under the angular acceleration curve (0.96). A strong negative correlation is identified between peak angular acceleration and cumulative strain damage measure (CSDM) (-0.94) and maximum principal strain (MPS) (-0.94). A positive trend is also noted between peak angular acceleration and maximum pressure (0.77), Gadd Severity Index (GSI) (0.74) and linear acceleration gradient (0.76).

Discussion

As presented, the mechanisms associated with causation of focal head injuries and diffuse brain injuries are very different. Helmets were originally intended and continue to be designed to reduce the risk of potentially fatal head injuries caused by skull fracture fragments penetrating the brain. While skull fractures have been almost entirely eliminated in activities such as American Football, the higher impact speeds associated with motorcycle collisions continue to result in life-threatening cranial fractures, even in areas covered by the helmet. Thus, minimizing peak linear accelerations remains an important function of any motorcycle helmet. Therefore, to minimize the risk of skull fractures associated with helmeted motorcycle collision, based on research by Ono [25], a threshold of 140 g for peak linear acceleration to the frontal and occipital areas of the head and 90 g for peak linear acceleration for lateral impacts is suggested as a suitable performance criteria.

However, as with most helmets, motorcycle helmets perform inadequately in terms of mitigating the forces responsible for causing traumatic brain injury. Though a trend may exist between peak linear acceleration and peak angular acceleration, a strong correlation is absent, consistent with prior work in this area [14]. Hence, reduced peak linear acceleration through improved helmet design may not reduce the risk of traumatic brain injury. Indeed, as results herein show, an unhelmeted individual may be at a lesser risk of subdural hematoma during a moderate speed impact than one who is wearing a DOT approved motorcycle helmet.

Motorcycle Helmet Biomechanics

To minimize the risk of traumatic brain injury, spanning from mild concussion (AIS2) through severe brain injury (AIS5), it is necessary to reduce impact-related peak angular velocities in the sagittal, coronal and axial planes. Furthermore, since risk of subdural hematoma is defined based on peak angular acceleration and impulse duration, reducing peak angular velocities while also managing impulse duration will also lend to risk reduction of such severe or critical traumatic brain injuries. Therefore, to minimize the risk of concussion and subdural hematoma in helmeted motorcycle collisions, it is suggested that performance criteria based on peak angular velocity and acceleration not exceed 15.0 rad/s and 3,000 rad/s2, respectively, as previously proposed for American Football helmets [17].

Figure 10, below, was prepared to illustrate the relative effectiveness of the ten motorcycle helmet models tested and prototype in terms of protection against skull fracture, concussion and subdural hematoma, based on the above suggested performance criteria. Results indicate that only the prototype provides adequate protection against both traumatic head and brain injuries.

Figure 10: Motorcycle Helmet Effectiveness in Protecting Against Skull Fracture, Concussion and Subdural Hematoma

Lloyd - Motorcycle Helmet Biomechanics - Figure 10

Based on the overall performance in terms of protection against skull fracture, concussion and subdural hematoma, and assuming equal weighting of these criteria for visualization purposes, the helmet models are presented in rank order in Figure 11.

Figure 11: Motorcycle Helmet Effectiveness
(presented in rank order from left to right)

Lloyd - Motorcycle Helmet Biomechanics - Figure 11

A strong negative correlation has been shown between helmet mass and both peak linear and angular accelerations. This finding suggests that ‘novelty’ motorcycle helmets (i.e. those not meeting FMVSS218 or other motorcycle helmet standards), which are often of lighter weight than DOT-approved helmets, will likely perform poorly in terms of preventing both head and brain injuries.

The new motorcycle helmet prototype evaluated within the scope of this study demonstrated exceptional potential to minimize the risk of traumatic brain injury, from mild concussion through severe brain injury, for a helmeted motorcyclist involved in a collision of moderate head impact speed.

Conclusions

The purpose of a motorcycle helmet is to reduce blunt force trauma to the head, thereby decreasing the risk of lacerations, contusions and skull fractures,. Whereas brain injuries may be produced when the brain lags behind sudden head motion thereby causing brain tissue, nerves and blood vessels to stretch and tear. The type of brain injury sustained is dependent on the magnitude and the time (pulse) duration over which mechanical stresses and strains act on the brain.

Motorcycle helmet test standards focus on reducing forces associated with linear acceleration by dropping helmeted headforms onto an anvil from a stated height and measuring the resultant peak linear acceleration. In general, the helmet design is considered acceptable if the magnitude of peak linear acceleration is less than an established threshold. Thus, helmets can and do prevent fatalities associated with penetrating head trauma. However, it may be argued that protection against brain injury is of paramount importance. After all, cuts, bruises and even bone fractures will heal, but brain injuries, if not fatal, often have life long neurologically devastating effects.

Current helmet testing standards do not require performance measures in terms of angular head kinematics and therefore fail to address whether motorcycle helmets provide the necessary protection against traumatic brain injuries. Research presented herein shows that it is possible to sustain catastrophic brain injuries, even while wearing a motorcycle helmet certified according to present testing standards.

Future generations of motorcycle helmets ought to be evaluated at higher impact velocities that are more indicative of head impact velocities in typical motorcycle accidents and should incorporate measures of both linear and angular acceleration to quantify their protective properties against both traumatic head and brain injuries.

References

[1]     RnR Market Research (2014) Market Research Reports Press Release: Global motorcycles market demand to rise 7.2% annually to 2016. accessed 7/21/2017

[2]     Statistica – The Statistics Portal. Number of Registered Motorcycles in the US by State. accessed 1/2/2017.

[3]     WHO (2013) Road traffic injuries. Fact Sheet No. 358. The World Health Organization, Geneva.

[4]     National Highway Transportation Safety Administration, Center for Statistics and Analysis (2007) NHTSA: Motorcycles Traffic Safety Fact Sheet DOT-HS-810-990. National Highway Traffic Safety Administration, Washington, DC.

[5]     Lin M, & Kraus J (2008) Methodological issues in motorcycle injury epidemiology. Accident Analysis and Prevention. 40 (5): 1653–1660. PMID: 18760092

[6]     Koornstra M, Broughton J, Esberger R, Glansdorp C, Koppel W, et al. (2003) Transport safety performance in the EU: a statistical overview. In: European Transport Safety Council, Brussels, Belgium.

[7]     Peden M (2004) The World Report on Road Traffic Injury Prevention. World Health Organization, Geneva.

[8]     Hurt HH, Ouellet JV & Thom DR (1981) Motorcycle Accident Cause Factors and Identification of Countermeasures. Volume 1: Technical Report. Traffic Safety Center, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA.

[9]     ACEM (2009) MAIDS (Motorcycle Accidents In Depth Study): In-depth investigations of accidents involving powered two wheelers – Final Report 2.0. European Association of Motorcycle Manufacturers.

[10]   Chinn B, Canaple B, Derler S, Doyle D, Otte D, et al. (2001) Cost 327, Motorcycle Safety Helmets, Final report of the action. European Commission, Directorate General for Energy and Transport, Belgium.

[11]   Chang L, Chang G, Huang J, Huang S, Liu D et al. (2003) Finite Element Analysis of the effect of motorcycle helmet materials against impact velocity. Journal of the Chinese Institute of Engineers. 26: 835–843.

[12]   National Highway Transportation Safety Administration (2008) Traffic Safety Facts, Data: Motorcycles. DOT HS 811 159. National Highway Traffic Safety Administration, Washington, DC.

[13]   Liu B, Ivers R, Norton R, Boufous S, Blows S, Lo SK (2008) Helmets for preventing injury in motorcycle riders. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. Jan 23; (1): CD004333. PMID: 18254047

[14]   Roy R (2007) Evaluation of Head Linear and Rotational Acceleration Response to Various Linear-Induced Impact Scenarios. Masters Thesis, University of Tennessee.

[15]   Roth H. and Lombard C (1953) Crash helmet. US patent 2,625,683.

[16]   Caccese V, Lloyd J, Ferguson J (2014) An Impact Test Apparatus for Protective Head Wear Testing Using a Hybrid III Head-Neck Assembly. Experimental Techniques. PMID: 28216804

[17]   Lloyd J & Conidi F (2015) Brain Injury in Sports. Journal of Neurosurgery. 124(3):667-74 PMID: 26473777

[18]   Newman J (2005) The biomechanics of head trauma and the development of the modern helmet. How far have we really come? In: Proceedings of the IRCOBI Conference, Prague.

[19]   Fernandez FAO & Alves de Sousa RJ (2013) Motorcycle helmets—A state of the art review. Accident Analysis and Prevention. 56:1-21. PMID: 23583353

[20]   U.S. Department of Transportation (2013) Federal Motor Carrier Safety Administration Standard No. 218, Motorcycle helmets. Washington, DC.

[21]   Snell (2015) M2020 – Standard for Protective Headgear for use with Motorcycles and other motorized vehicles. Snell Memorial Foundation, North Highlands, CA.

[22]   BSI (1985) BS 6658 – Specification for protective helmets for vehicle users. British Standards Institute.

[23]   ECE (2002) 22.05 Protective Helmets and their Visors for Drivers and Passengers of Motorcycles and Mopeds.

[24]   Australian/New Zealand Standard (2006) AS/NZS1698, Protective Helmets for Vehicle Users. Australian/New Zealand Standard.

[25]   Ono K (1998) Human head impact tolerance. In Yoganandan (Ed). Frontiers in Head and Neck Trauma: Clinical and Biomechanical. IOS Press, Amsterdam.

[26]   Nahum, A. M., Gatts, J. D., Gadd, C. W., Danforth, J (1993) Impact Tolerance of the Skull and Face. In Biomechanics of Impact Injury and Injury Tolerances of the Head-Neck Complex. Ed. Stanley H. Backaitis. Warrendale: Society of Automotive Engineers. 631-645.

[27]   Ommaya AK, Gennarelli TA (1974) Cerebral concussion and traumatic unconsciousness. Correlation of experimental and clinical observations of blunt head injuries. Brain. 97(4): 633-54. PMID: 4215541

[28]   Gennarelli TA, Thibault LE, Adams JH, Graham DI, Thompson CJ, et al (1982) Diffuse axonal injury and traumatic coma in the primate. Ann Neurol. 12(6): 564-74. PMID: 7159060

[29]   Gennarelli T. and Thibault L (1982) Biomechanics of Acute Subdural Hematoma, J Trauma. 22(8), 680-686. PMID: 7108984

[30]   Lowenhielm P (1974) Dynamic properties of the parasagittal bridging veins. Z. Rechtsmed. 74 (1): 55-62. PMID: 4832079

[31]   Lowenhielm P (1975) Strain Tolerance of the Vv. Cerebri sup. (Bridging Veins) Calculated from Head-on Collision Tests with Cadavers. Z. Rechtsmed. 75 (2): 131-144. PMID: 4217056

[32]   Lowenhielm P (1978) Tolerance level for bridging vein disruption calculated with a mathematical model. J Bioengineering. 2 (6): 501-507. PMID: 753840

[33]   Lee MC and Haut RC (1989) Insensitivity of tensile failure properties of human bridging veins to strain rate: implications in biomechanics of subdural hematoma. J Biomechanics. 22 (6-7): 537–542. PMID: 2808439

[34]   Meaney DF (1991) Biomechanics of acute subdural hematoma in the subhuman primate and man. University of Pennsylvania. PhD dissertation.

[35]   Depreitere B, Van Lierde CSloten JVVan Audekercke RVan der Perre G, et al. (2006) Mechanics of Acute Subdural Hematoma Resulting from Bridging Vein Rupture. J Neurosurgery. 104:950–956. PMID: 16776340

[36]   Holbourn AHS (1943) Mechanics of Head Injuries. The Lancet. 242(6267): 438-441.

[37]   Gennarelli TA, Ommaya AK, and Thibault LE (1971) Comparison of translational and rotational head motions in experimental cerebral concussion. Stapp Car Crash Conference. Fifteenth Proceedings, SAE Paper No. P-39, 797-803.

[38]   Gennarelli TA, Adams JH, Graham DI (1981) Acceleration induced head injury in the monkey I: The model, its mechanistic and physiological correlates. Acta Neuropathol. Suppl. 7:23-25. PMID: 6939241

[39]   Thibault LE and Gennarelli TA (1985) Biomechanics of diffuse brain injuries. Stapp Car Crash Conference. Twenty-Ninth Proceedings, SAE Paper No. 856022, New York.

[40]   Pellman EJ, Viano DC, Tucker AM, Casson IR, Waeckerle JF (2003) Concussion in professional football: reconstruction of game impacts and injuries. Neurosurgery. 53(4): 799-812. PMID: 14519212

[41]   Rowson S, Brolinson G, Goforth M, Dietter D, Duma S (2009) Linear and angular head acceleration measurements in collegiate football. J Biomech Eng. 131(6). PMID: 19449970

[42]   Rowson S, Goforth MW, Dietter D, Brolinson PG, Duma SM (2009) Correlating cumulative sub-concussive head impacts in football with player performance. Biomed Sci Instrum. 45:113-8. PMID: 19369749

[43]   Rowson S, Duma SM, Beckwith JG, Chu JJ, Greenwald RM, et al (2012) Rotational head kinematics in football impacts: an injury risk function for concussion. Ann Biomed Eng. 40(1): 1-13. PMID: 22012081

[44]   Rowson S, Duma SM (2013) Brain injury prediction: assessing the combined probability of concussion using linear and rotational head acceleration. Ann Biomed Eng. 41(5): 873-82. PMID: 23299827

[45]   Adamson KS, Alexander P, Robinson EL, Johnson GM, Burkhead CI, et al. (2002) Seventeen motorcycle crash tests into vehicles and a barrier. SAE 2002-01-0551. Society of Automotive Engineers, Warrendale, PA.

[46]   Severy DM, Brink HM, Blaisdell DM (1970) Motorcycle collision experiments. SAE Technical Paper 700897. Society of Automotive Engineers, Warrendale PA.

[47]   Mellor AN, St Clair VJM, Chinn BP (2007) Motorcyclists’ helmets and visors – test methods and new technologies. TRL Limited, Wokingham, Berkshire, UK. Project # S0232/VF.

[48]   Mertz HJ, Patrick LM (1971) Strength and Response of the Human Neck. Stapp Car Crash Conference; SAE Technical Paper 710855. Society of Automotive Engineers, Warrendale PA.

[49]   Lloyd JD (2015) Impact Absorbing Composite Material. US Patents Office. US20150246502A1.

[50]   SAE (2007) J211/1. Instrumentation for Impact Test – Part 1 – Electronic Instrumentation. Society of Automotive Engineers International, Surface Vehicle Recommended Practice, Warrendale, PA.

[51]   Takhounts EG, Craig MJ, Moorhouse K, McFadden J (2013) Development of Brain Injury Criteria (BrIC). Stapp Car Crash Journal 57: 243-266. PMID: 24435734

[52]   Abbreviated Injury Scale (2008) Association for the Advancement of Automotive Medicine, Des Plaines, IL.

Helmet Expert

Dr. Lloyd’s unique capability as a helmet expert is in the biomechanical  evaluation of helmets, specifically, football, sports and motorcycle helmets. Helmets are designed to reduce the risk of blunt force trauma to the head, however protection against diffuse traumatic brain injury is often inadequate. Dr. Lloyd is often called upon to opine whether the head and brain injuries may or may not have been prevented by head protection.

His work on football helmets has been published in the Journal of Neurosurgery and his work on motorcycle helmets has been printed in Adventure Bike Magazine.

motorcycle football sports helmet expert

As a helmet expert, Dr. Lloyd’s advanced research has lead to several peer-reviewed publications in scientific journals. Specifically, the test apparatus and methods that he employs to evaluate helmet protection was published in a landmark technical article titled “Response of an Impact Test Apparatus for Fall Protective Headgear Testing Using a Hybrid-III Head-Neck Assembly“.

Using this apparatus, helmet expert Dr. Lloyd and neurologist Dr. Frank Conidi of the Florida Center for Headache and Sports Neurology have presented a series of studies at the American Academy of Neurology meetings. Their work was publicized by the AAN in a press-release titled “How Well Do Football Helmets Protect Players from Concussions“. Dr. Lloyd and Dr. Conidi published a scientific article in the Journal of Neurosurgery titled “Brain Injury in Sports“. This article documents the limited protection against traumatic brain injuries afforded by many current varsity football helmets.

Example Motorcycle Helmet Expert Case

motorcycle helmet expert Hamilton crashDr. Lloyd provided biomechanical analysis on a recent motorcycle accident case in which an automobile crossed the path of an unhelmeted rider traveling at approximately 25 miles per hour. The motorcyclist’s head shattered the driver’s side window, leading to catastrophic brain injury


motorcycle helmet expert Hamilton test apparatusDr. Lloyd was asked to opine as to whether or not a motorcycle helmet would have prevented these injuries. A test apparatus was constructed using an exemplar automobile driver’s door and window to measure the forces acting on a crash test dummy head.

The following high speed videos and data were captured showing the helmeted versus unhelmeted conditions.

We learned that, had the motorcyclist been wearing a helmet during the subject collision, he would have most likely sustained fatal neck injuries as the helmet was deflected by the window, producing unsurvivable neck extension, as shown below:

Test results and video documentation were presented at deposition and proved highly valuable.

motorcycle helmet expert Hamilton test results

Please call Dr. Lloyd at 813-624-8986 or email  DrJohnLloyd@Tampabay.RR.com to discuss how he can be of help to you with your case.

Left Turn Across Motorcycle Path

In 2016 there were more than 8.4 million motorcycles registered in the United States, representing 3.2% of all US vehicles. California, Florida and Texas were the leading States in terms of the motorcycle popularity; collectively representing 22% of all US registered motorcycles. According to the U.S. National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA), when compared per vehicle mile traveled with automobiles, due to their vulnerability, motorcyclists’ risk of a fatal crash is 30-35 times greater than that of a car occupant.

Number One Cause of Motorcycle Crashes

Seventy-five percent of accidents were found to involve a motorcycle and a passenger vehicle, while the remaining 25% of accidents were single motorcycle accidents.

The number one cause of motorcycle crashes is a motorist making a left turn across motorcycle path. With reference to the Hurt report in the United States and the MAIDS in-depth investigation of motorcycle accidents in Europe, approximately two-thirds of all motorcycle crashes involving other vehicles are caused due to violation of the motorcycle rider’s right of way by the failure of motorists to detect and recognize motorcycles on the road. 

left turn across the path of an oncoming motorcycle

While the motorcycle rider has right of way, they are also more vulnerable to injury. Motorcyclists must therefore be extra-vigilant, especially when approaching intersections. Appropriate riding gear, including a DOT certified helmet, motorcycle jacket and riding boots offer the motorcyclist the best protection. Findings of the Hurt study indicate that severity of motorcyclist injury increases with speed, alcohol consumption, motorcycle size and speed.

Motorcyclist Conspicuity

Conspicuity is one of the key factors in motorcycle road crashes around the world. The inability and difficulty of other road users in detecting motorcycles either at day or at night has contributed to conspicuity related motorcycle crashes. Additional lights and brightly colored riding gear can help to improve motorcyclists conspicuity to other roadway users. The following image depicts this author wearing a hi-visibility motorcycle jacket and helmet to enhance conspicuity.

Please call Dr. Lloyd at 813-624-8986 or email DrJohnLloyd@Tampabay.RR.com to discuss how he can be of help to you with your case.

Motorcycle Helmets Provide Inadequate Protection Against Traumatic Brain Injury

Dr. John Lloyd recently conducted a biomechanical study to evaluate motorcycle helmets in terms of their ability to provide protection against traumatic head and brain injuries. Motorcycle helmet testing proves inadequate protection against concussion and diffuse traumatic brain injuries associated.

Motorcycle accident victims account for more than 340,000 fatalities annually, with the United States ranking 8th highest worldwide in the number of motorcycle accident deaths. 75% of all fatal motorcycle accidents involve brain injury, with rotational forces acting on the brain the primary cause of mortality. Current motorcycle helmets are effective at reducing head injuries associated with blunt impact. However, the mechanism of diffuse traumatic brain injury is biomechanically very different.

Samples of 9 motorcycle helmet models, representing full-face, three-quarter and shorty designs were evaluated. Helmets, fitted to an instrumented Hybrid III head and neck, were dropped at 13 mph in accordance with DOT motorcycle helmet testing standards.motorcycle helmet testing

Results show that, on average, there is a 67% risk of concussion and a 10% probability of severe or fatal brain injury associated with a relatively minor 13mph helmeted head impact.

motorcycle helmet testing results

In conclusion, motorcycle helmets provide inadequate protection against concussion and diffuse traumatic brain injuries associated with even relatively moderate impact.

Motorcycle Helmet Standards

Motorcycle helmets were originally developed in the early 20th century and, like most helmets, are modeled after military helmets, the purpose of which is to protect against penetrating head injury. The modern motorcycle helmet, with a hard outer shell and rigid expanded polystyrene (EPS) liner was actually introduced over 60 years ago. The outer shell serves as a second skull, dispersing the impact force over a wider surface area, while the inner shell compresses in an attempt to reduce translational forces. A mechanism to mitigate tangential forces is absent. Since the liner fills the entire inner surface of the shell, tangential forces cannot be absorbed and are transmitted directly to the head and brain. Motorcycle helmet standards focus on reducing the effect of linear impact forces by dropping them from a given height onto an anvil and measuring the resultant peak linear acceleration.

Motorcycle Helmet Standards

In motorcycle helmet testing, the risk of impact loading injuries, such as skull fractures, can be determined by measuring linear accelerations experienced by a surrogate head form in response to impact. Whereas risk of impulse or inertial loading injuries, such as concussion, axonal injury and subdural hematoma can be quantified by measuring impact-related angular accelerations at the center of mass of a test head form.

Unfortunately, the evolution of motorcycle helmet design is not driven by advances in scientific knowledge, but rather by the need to meet applicable testing standards. In the United States, standards include the federal motor vehicle safety standard (FMVSS) #218, commonly known as the DOT motorcycle helmet testing standards, and Snell M2015, while ECE 22.05 and BSI 6658 were adopted in European countries. Test procedures involve dropping a helmeted head form onto various steel anvils at impact velocities ranging from only 5.0 to 7.75 m/s (11-17 mph). Pass/fail is based on the ability of the helmet to provide protection against forces associated with linear acceleration in response to impact.

John Lloyd expert witness motorcycle helmet standardsCurrent motorcycle helmet testing standards do not incorporate measures of angular acceleration and therefore fail to assess whether helmets offer protection against catastrophic brain injuries. The omission of this critical measure is reflected epidemiologically in the disproportion of closed head injuries in fatal motorcycle accidents.

Motorcycle Accidents and Brain Injury

To consider whether a motorcycle helmet might reduce the risk of brain trauma in a motorcycle accident it is first important to understand the two primary mechanisms associated with traumatic brain injury – impact loading and impulse loading, according to motorcycle helmet expert, Dr. John Lloyd.

John Lloyd motorcycle helmet expert linear head injuryImpact loading involves a direct blow transmitted primarily through the center of mass of the head, resulting in extracranial focal injuries, such as contusions, lacerations and external hematomas, as well as skull fractures. Shock waves from blunt force trauma may also cause underlying focal brain injuries, such as cerebral contusions, subarachnoid hematomas and intracerebral hemorrhages.
John Lloyd motorcycle helmet expert rotational brain injury

Whereas, impulse or inertial loading caused by sudden movement of the brain relative to the skull, produces cerebral concussion. Inertial loading at the surface of the brain can cause subdural hemorrhage due to bridging vein rupture, whereas if affecting the neural structures deeper within the brain can produce diffuse axonal injury (DAI).

 

Epidemiology Studies

Two major epidemiologic studies into the causation of motorcycle accidents have been conducted in North America and Europe: the Hurt Report and the MAIDS report. The Hurt Report showed that failure of motorists to detect and recognize motorcycles in traffic is the predominating cause of motorcycle accidents. Seventy-five percent of accidents were found to involve a motorcycle and a passenger vehicle, while the remaining 25% of accidents were single motorcycle accidents. Two-thirds of motorcycle-car crashes occurred when the car driver failed to see the approaching motorcycle and violated the rider’s right-of-way. Findings indicate that severity of injury increases with speed, alcohol motorcycle size and speed.

The MAIDS study (Motorcycle Accidents In Depth Study) is the most recent epidemiologic study of accidents involving motorcycles, scooters and mopeds, which was conducted in 1999 to investigate motorcycle accident exposure data across five European countries. Key findings show that passenger cars were the most frequent collision partner (60%), where 69% of the drivers report that they did not see the motorcycle and the predominance of motorcycle accidents (54.3%) occurred at an intersection.

In 1995, the European Commission Directorate General for Energy and Transport initiated a Cooperative Scientific and Technical Research (COST) program to investigate Motorcycle Safety Helmets. Several agencies from Finland, the United Kingdom, France and Germany participated in this study, which compiled and analyzed data from 4,700 motorcycle fatalities in Europe, each year. The COST report documents that 75% of all fatal motorcycle accidents involve head injury. Linear forces were present in only 31% of fatal head injuries, while rotational forces were found to be the primary cause in over 60% of cases. Within the scope of this study experiments were performed using drop tests with accelerometers to measure linear and rotational accelerations of the brain and skull mass associated with different types of impacts. These tests confirmed rotational acceleration to be a primary cause of brain injury in helmeted motorcycle accidents.

While the motorcycle helmet is currently the most effective means of protection for riders, data suggests that motorcycle helmets are only 37-42% effective in preventing fatal injury. By reducing the effects of blunt trauma to the head it is generally believed that risk of brain injury, including concussion, axonal injury and hematoma would also be reduced. However, the mechanisms of head and brain injury are very different. New research shows that these mechanisms are poorly coupled, contrary to previous beliefs.

Summary

  • Motorcycle helmet expert report that rotational forces acting on the brain are the underlying cause of traumatic brain injuries.
  • Motorcycle helmets, including those certified under DOT and SNELL standards are designed to mitigate forces associated with linear acceleration.
  • According to motorcycle helmet expert, helmets are not currently certified under either DOT or SNELL standard against their ability to protect against the angular / rotational forces.
  •  Epidemiologic evidence from the COST-327 report  indicates that motorcycle helmets do not provide adequate protection against closed head and brain injuries

New Research

Motorcycle helmet expert Dr. John Lloyd recently published a new study: Biomechanics of Motorcycle Helmets: Protection Against Head and Brain Injury. Testing proves that motorcycle helmets provide inadequate protection against concussion and severe traumatic brain injury associated with even relatively minor head impact

Helmets Do Not Prevent Brain Injury

Helmets are intended to minimize blunt force trauma to the head, such as skull fracture, lacerations and contusions. Whereas risk of diffuse brain injuries, such as concussion, brain bleeding and axonal injuries are caused when brain tissue, nerves and blood vessels stretch and tear as the head moves suddenly but the brain lags behind. The type of brain injury is dependent on the magnitude of this strain and the time duration over which it acts on the brain.

Risk of focal head and brain injury is measured in terms of peak linear acceleration associated with impact, while risk of diffuse brain injury is measurable in terms of peak angular acceleration.

While helmets can prevent fatalities associated with penetrating head trauma, it may be argued that protection against diffuse brain injury is of paramount importance. After all, cuts, bruises and even bone fractures will heal, but brain injuries often have life long neurologically devastating effects.

Unfortunately, helmet testing standards addresses only the risk of blunt force trauma, not risk of brain injury.

Helmets may reduce the rotational forces acting on the brain. But since helmets are not currently certified according to their ability to protect against brain injury the level of protection is not standardized. Hence, it is possible to sustain catastrophic diffuse brain injuries, even while wearing a helmet.

As a biomechanics researcher, Dr. John Lloyd has dedicated his career to understanding the biomechanics of brain injuries. One objective of which is to develop a new generation of helmets for sports and motorcycling using “intelligent” materials that hold great promise for reducing the risk of traumatic brain injuries.

Dr. Lloyd’s biomechanics laboratory employs a specialized helmet testing apparatus for evaluating the risk of both head and brain injuries. This apparatus has been published in a peer-reviewer journal.

risk of brain injuries measured by helmet test system - Dr. John LloydUsing this apparatus, Dr. Lloyd, evaluates the linear and rotational forces associated with specific impact events, such as a motorcycle crash or sports injury, to determine whether an unhelmeted condition, or the type of helmet might have prevented the injury sustained. This apparatus has also been used to investigate whether a particular helmet failed to perform or did not meet scientifically-acceptable levels of protection.

Traditional testing of motorcycle helmets focuses on reducing the effect of linear impact forces by dropping them from a given height onto an anvil and measuring the resultant peak linear acceleration. According to the Federal Motor Vehicle Safety Standard (FMVSS) 218, commonly known as the DOT helmet standard, the test involves dropping a motorcycle helmet onto a flat steel and hemispherical anvil at an impact velocity of 6.0 m/s (13.4 mph).  In general, if the resultant peak linear acceleration is less than 400G, the helmet is considered acceptable. Current motorcycle helmet testing standards do not incorporate measures of angular acceleration and therefore do not address whether any motorcycle helmet can provide protection against diffuse brain injuries, including concussion.

In 1995, the European Commission Directorate General for Energy and Transport initiated a Cooperative Scientific and Technical Research (COST) program to investigate Motorcycle Safety Helmets. Several agencies from Finland, the United Kingdom, France and Germany participated in this study, which compiled and analyzed data from 4,700 motorcycle fatalities in Europe, each year. The COST report [i] documents that 75% of all fatal motorcycle accidents involve head injury. Linear forces were present in only 31% of fatal head injuries, while rotational forces were found to be the primary cause in over 60% of cases.

Dr. Lloyd recently conducted independent testing of various motorcycle helmets utilizing a methodology that has been peer-reviewed [i] and has survived a Daubert motion for exclusion [ii]. The following figure presents peak angular acceleration results of repeated testing of various motorcycle helmets, including: (i) Voss novelty helmet, (ii) Bell shorty helmet, (iii) Daytona shorty helmet, and (iv) Bell full-face helmet, compared with an unhelmeted condition for impacts onto concrete at approximately 20mph. The red horizontal line on the figure indicates the 50% threshold for concussive trauma, as defined by Pellman et al [iii].

risk of brain injuries measured by helmet test system - John Lloyd PhD

Results show that while a novelty or DOT approved motorcycle helmet will reduce the peak angular acceleration associated with a head impact relative to an unhelmeted condition, the level of protection is not sufficient to prevent diffuse brain injury in a typical motorcycle accident.

[i]     Caccese V, Ferguson J, Lloyd J, Edgecomb M, Seidi M and Hajiaghamemar M: Response of an Impact Test Apparatus for Fall Protective Headgear Testing Using a Hybrid-III Head/Neck Assembly. Experimental Techniques, 2014.

[ii]     Superior Court, Judicial District of Hartford, CT. Docket Number: HHD-CV-13-6043998-S. Case Caption: SHUMBO, JAKE Et Al v. K2 SPORTS USA Et Al. Order #227.86 regarding: 03/02/2015 Motion to Exclude Expert Testimony. Notice Issued: 07/09/2015

[iii] Pellman EJ, Viano DC, Tucker AM, Casson IR, Waeckerle JF: Concussion in professional football: reconstruction of game impacts and injuries. Neurosurgery 53(4): 799-812, 2003

[iv]     COST-327 report of the European Commission Directorate General for Energy and Transport on Motorcycle Safety Helmets. (1999).

Helmets – The Ultimate Protection?

Motorcycle helmet and accident reconstruction expert Dr. John LloydThe common belief among riders is that a motorcycle helmet protects the whole head, including the brain. However testing standards in Europe (ECE 22.05) and the US (DOT & Snell), which involve dropping helmeted headforms from heights of 2-3 meters onto a steel plate, only evaluate a motorcycle helmet in terms of its ability to protect against blunt force trauma, such as skull fractures and penetrating head injuries. The mechanism underlying diffuse brain injuries, such as concussions and brain hemorrhages is distinctly different, but is not assessed by current motorcycle helmet testing standards.

Imagine a bowl of jelly, where the bowl represents the skull and the jelly represents the brain. The bowl (skull) serves to protect the jelly (brain) from impact by dispersing forces over a larger surface area. If the bowl were impacted such that the force passes through the center of the jelly, the jelly moves very little. This is called linear force. Whereas, if you rotate the bowl of jelly between your hands you will see that the jelly moves quite a lot, especially towards its center. This is called a rotational force.

In reality, most motorcycle helmet impacts will produce both linear and rotational forces. In the case of head and brain injury, linear forces are responsible for injuries such as bruises and fractures. Whereas rotational forces cause the nerves and blood vessels in the brain to stretch and tear, leading to concussions, injury to the nerve fibers (axonal trauma) and brain bleeding (hematomas).

The human head is designed to protect the brain against typical impacts associated with daily living, such as normal bumps and falls. The skull can be thought of as a helmet to the brain by resisting penetrating injury to the brain. While the scalp glides over the skull to decrease rotational forces, thereby reducing the risk and severity of diffuse brain injuries. However, the forces associated with motorcycle collisions far exceed that which the human skull and scalp was intended to protect. Hence in motorcycling the use of a helmet to reduce the risk of such injuries is typically mandated.

Helmets are designed with 3 principal components – the outer shell, the inner liner and a comfort layer. The shell is typically made of polycarbonate plastics or fiberglass and serves two purposes; to minimize the likelihood that a sharp object might penetrate the head, and to dissipate the impact over a larger surface area. The inner liner is made from EPS foam (polystyrene) and serves to absorb the impact forces. The comfort layer does nothing more than provide comfort between the head and the polystyrene liner. Unfortunately, the polystyrene liner has limited effectiveness at reducing the rotational forces – those responsible for diffuse brain injuries – below safe levels.

A cooperative study was undertaken in Europe in the late 1990s to examine motorcycle accidents and their causes. Based on data from 4,700 helmeted motorcyclist deaths, the study found head injuries accounted for three-quarters of all fatalities. More than 60 percent of which were brain injuries caused by rotational forces, while only 30 percent of fatal head injuries were due to linear forces. This extensive study proves that motorcycle helmets are inadequate in providing necessary protection against diffuse brain injuries.

One might propose that protection against diffuse brain injury ought to deserve a higher priority. After all, the skull will likely heal from trauma, but the brain may not.

The challenge with protective headgear, including motorcycle, military and sports helmets is that, due to the characteristics of the liner materials, the head is directly coupled to the helmet. That is, the head and helmet are effectively joined and move as one. Therefore upon impact, any rotational forces generated on the helmet are transmitted directly to the brain. In fact, due to the size of helmets rotational forces can actually be amplified. The solution lies in de-coupling the head from the helmet, much the way that the scalp is de-coupled from the skull, so that the helmet can have some degree of rotation independent of the head. In this way, the rotational forces are dampened before they are transmitted to the brain, thereby lessening the risk and severity of brain injury.

BRAINS, Inc., of which Dr. Lloyd is the Research Director, is developing a new generation of motorcycle helmets, utilizing a patented composite of shear-thickening non-Newtonian materials. Due to their nature, these advanced materials respond differently to linear and rotational forces, thereby allowing the helmet some independent rotational motion, effectively de-coupling the helmet from the head. This technology was demonstrated at NI Week (http://youtu.be/T591x950oRI) and shows great promise for protection against both blunt force trauma and traumatic brain injuries.

Given the choice of a helmet that protected against skull fracture and one which also provides protection against brain injury, which would you choose?

For more information, please contact John@DrBiomechanics.com

 

Biography:

Dr. John Lloyd holds a PhD in Ergonomics from Loughborough University and is a Brain Injury Specialist. He is an expert in the field of brain injury biomechanics.

As a motorcycle enthusiast, John has clocked more than 250,000 miles and completed numerous training programs. Dr. Lloyd has served as a biomechanics expert on a variety of motorcycle accident cases.

Helmeted Motorcyclist Fatality

Two helmeted motorcyclist were traveling on a rural state road when a tractor-trailer driver failed to see the bikes and made a left turn in front of them to enter a truck stop. The rider in the right track had little time to respond and collided head first into the box trailer. He was pronounced deceased at the scene.

Lloyd helmeted motorcycle case

The helmeted motorcyclist was wearing a non-compliant or ‘novelty’ helmet, which did not meet DOT motorcycle helmet standards (FMVSS 218). Opposing counsel claimed that had the biker been wearing a DOT-certified motorcycle helmet he may have survived the impact.

novelty motorcycle helmet shell
novelty motorcycle helmet liner

Motorcycle helmet expert, Dr. John Lloyd, was retained to evaluate and compare the protective performance of DOT-certified and novelty motorcycle helmets.

Based on a comprehensive motorcycle accident reconstruction it was determined that the impact speed of the rider was 45 to 50 miles per hour. Motorcycle helmet certification tests typically involve impact speeds of 13-17 miles per hour. Therefore a dedicated apparatus was constructed to generate higher impact speeds. Using a force-balanced twin pendulum apparatus, Dr. Lloyd was able to generate head impact speeds similar to those specific to the subject crash, yet preserve the standard DOT test methodology, thereby avoiding a Daubert challenge.

Eight DOT and non-DOT helmets were purchased for this study. Each was impacted once in the frontal region while fitted to an instrumented crash test dummy head. High speed data and video were acquired for each test.

Results demonstrate that, although the tested DOT-certified motorcycle helmets outperformed the tested novelty helmets, neither would provide adequate protection against head injuries, such as skull fractures, contusions and lacerations, or brain injuries, including hemorrhages or axonal injury in an impact of this magnitude.

helmeted motorcyclist head injury
helmeted motorcyclist brain injury

Dr. Lloyd’s prior published motorcycle helmet studies demonstrate that while DOT-certified motorcycle helmets can reduce the risk of traumatic head injuries, typical helmets do not afford any protection against acute brain injury.